Degree Apprenticeships: Pathways to Social Mobility or Missed Opportunities?

In a rapidly evolving educational landscape, Degree Apprenticeships (DAs) have been promoted as an innovative route to combine paid employment with university-level study, aiming to foster social mobility and open doors for those from lower socio-economic backgrounds (Richard, 2012; Smith et al: 2021). Yet, despite their promise, the reality is more complex. Many working-class participants still encounter barriers that limit their upward mobility, and critical questions remain about whether DAs genuinely address these inequalities or inadvertently reinforce them.

Cultural capital and structural barriers

Education has traditionally been regarded as a cornerstone of social mobility, however, research indicates that entrenched social structures and cultural capital heavily shape educational outcomes (Bourdieu, 1987; Bathmaker et al; 2013). For many working-class apprentices, aspirations often emerge later in life, shaped by challenges such as limited resources, geographical barriers and subtle class indicators, including accents and mannerisms. Although DAs were introduced to broaden access to education, participants frequently encounter persistent class-based obstacles, with opportunities disproportionately favouring individuals already positioned to succeed (Wakeling & Laurison, 2017). This highlights the need for targeted reforms to address systemic inequalities and ensure these opportunities benefit those from disadvantaged backgrounds.

In response to these challenges, the UK government's 2012 Richard Review emphasised the need to design apprenticeships that address social inequities (Richard, 2012, p.108). Similarly, Wilson's (2012) review called for expanded work-based learning opportunities, including apprenticeships. This led to the introduction of DAs in 2015, aimed at widening participation and promoting social mobility (BIS, 2015). Even so, questions remain about the extent to which these initiatives have successfully alleviated barriers for disadvantaged groups, necessitating further evaluation and policy adjustments.

The capacity of DAs to facilitate social mobility for individuals from lower socio-economic backgrounds remains contested. The Wakeham Review raised concerns regarding the diminished educational and employability outcomes for economically disadvantaged students (Wakeham, 2016, p.11), while Reay (2018) argued that the education system systematically fails working-class students (Reay, 2018, p.528). Additionally, Smith et al. (2021, p.520) pointed to the limitations of DAs, noting that graduates often struggle with mobility and transferability across sectors.

Methodology: capturing the lived experience

The project explored how apprentices perceive and experience social mobility. To do this, it  employed a qualitative, case study methodology, as recommended by Mac an Ghaill, (1989) and Platt (1992) to capture the complexity of apprentices’ lived experiences in context. Four semi-structured interviews allowed for exploration of personal stories, revealing how cultural and socio-economic backgrounds influenced career decisions and educational engagement (Harrison et al; 2017), further highlighting the systemic challenges faced by apprentices.

The chosen approach offered rich, contextual insights, but it was not without limitations, particularly due to the small sample size of four participants, which limits the transferability of the findings. However, as highlighted by Gomm et al (2000) and Yazan (2015), qualitative case study research can offer valuable insights, even if its findings are not fully generalisable to other contexts.

Primary data: real stories of struggle and adaptation

Participants described growing up in state-funded schools, sometimes eligible for free meals but discouraged from claiming them due to stigma. They shared stories of poverty, redundancy, or starting in entry-level roles that did not reflect their interests or potential. Their chosen DA was often a second or third option once initial aspirations, such as careers in music, drama, or accounting, were deemed unattainable due to financial or cultural constraints. The DA was not for any participant, their first career choice, but a fallback when other paths were blocked. Participants described struggling in their early careers, taking any job to pay the bills, and only later opting for a DA to gain a qualification and potential advancement. Yet, the sense that they had to “fight” harder than their more privileged peers was common. 

Some apprentices were working in senior or middle management before enrolling, suggesting that employers have a tendency to use apprenticeship levy funds to upskill existing employees rather than proactively recruiting from disadvantaged communities who could genuinely benefit from entirely new opportunities. The Social Mobility Commission (2020) raise concerns that the ability to recruit current employees onto DAs limits the ability of the model to provide opportunities to those from lower socio-economic backgrounds.

Participants described how employers struggled to spend the apprenticeship levy strategically, defaulting to offering high-level apprenticeships to existing, often senior, managers rather than targeting disadvantaged school-leavers.

Gender and intersectional challenges

Women, particularly those from working-class backgrounds, faced additional hurdles, including societal expectations, biased workplace cultures, and limited flexibility in certain sectors. As Reay (2018) highlights, the intersection of class and gender can further restrict access to upward mobility, a finding that aligns with broader research on the topic.

Improving the model: targeting true need

If DAs are to serve as genuine catalysts for social mobility, several reforms are necessary. Employers must use the levy pot to create new opportunities specifically aimed at those from lower socio-economic backgrounds, young people leaving school, those exiting care, or those who have not previously considered higher education as a first-choice route. Clearer outreach, better guidance at the school level and earlier exposure to career pathways could ensure that apprentices pursue a DA aligned with their initial aspirations rather than settling for what is merely available.

This approach could help apprentices achieve career satisfaction and more immediate improvement in their socio-economic status (Leong et al, 2024; Marcus & Wagner, 2015). Moreover, establishing more supportive, community-driven learning environments would help build the confidence and engagement that our working-class apprentices say they currently lack.

Conclusion: realising the promise of degree apprenticeships

DAs carry the potential to uplift disadvantaged individuals who have historically been excluded from higher education. Yet this promise remains unrealised when employers fail to target the apprentices most in need and when systemic barriers persist. By concentrating on strategic recruitment, promoting inclusive environments and tackling gender and class inequalities, DAs can progress towards fulfilling their intended role as a driver of social mobility.

Jeanette Davies

Jeanette Davies is a higher education professional with extensive experience in student experience management, curriculum development and quality assurance. Currently serving as a Student Experience Manager at The Open University’s Faculty of Business and Law, her work focuses on enhancing learning opportunities, particularly within degree apprenticeships. With a strong research interest in social mobility, her contributions to academic conferences and publications explore how degree apprenticeships serve as pathways for individuals from working-class backgrounds to achieve career aspirations. She has held roles in higher education institutions and regulatory bodies, ensuring quality standards in work-based learning programmes, including the Chartered Management Degree Apprenticeship.

Jeanette holds an MA in Education and an MA in Educational Research, a BA (Hons) in Business and Marketing and multiple teaching qualifications, including a Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). She is also pursuing doctoral research on the intersection of work-based learning, degree apprenticeships and social mobility.