Governing Lesotho-South Africa migration dynamics: The quest for a fresh look

Bereket Tsegay and Yoseph Araya

The 2024 World Migration Report noted that there are 281 million international migrants globally, triggered by various climatic, environmental, and conflict-related factors. In Lesotho human mobility is a characterised by a complex dynamic spanning citizens’ internal movement from rural areas to the ever-expanding urban centres and international migration, mainly to its economically more advanced neighbour, South Africa. 

Lesotho a lower-middle-income country completely surrounded by South Africa, shares a unique political, socio-economic and cultural relationship with it where  migration to South Africa has been part of the socio-economic fabric of the Basotho people— nationals of Lesotho—with their ethnic and family ties across the borders. 

The key driving forces for migration 

What makes Lesotho’s migration dynamics unique is due to its geographical location and mountainous topography. Internal and international migration are driven mainly by lack of economic opportunities and disasters stemming from climate change and environmental degradation. South Africa dominates Lesotho migration patterns, hosting over 400,000 Basotho. This is nearly one-fifth of Lesotho's 2.3 million population and 99.5 per cent of all international migrants from the country. Given that almost half of the working force engages in economic activity and lives in South Africa, remittance inflow to Lesotho accounts 21% of the national GDP, as the World Bank data from 2020 shows.

Before, during and after the Apartheid regime in South Africa, this migration route has a long history of human mobility. Studies show nearly half of Lesotho’s population has an immediate family member who has migrated to South Africa. Many migrants, mostly in their 20s and 30s, are compelled to cross the border, often illegally, in search of work due to economic hardship. Information spreads informally among migrants; recently social media has been used in promoting the idea of better opportunities and living conditions in South Africa.

While migration is often motivated by kinship ties, the majority of individuals migrate predominantly for economic reasons. Such migration stems from two principal factors: limited employment opportunities, particularly youth unemployment at 33.2%, and environmental pressures including degradation and climate change caused by rainfall variability, particularly El Niño and reduced agricultural productivity. 

In early 2025, as the Lesotho Vulnerability Assessment Report (2024/25) projected that El Niño-related droughts would increase food insecurity, leaving about 699,049 people food-insecure in the 2024/25. This 17% increase from last year has forced the government to declare a National Food Insecurity Disaster in July 2024. The Crisis Level Assessment (IPC Phase 3) called for urgent action to address an estimated EUR 60 million funding gap.

Development-focused mega-projects, such as the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), have caused displacements of small settlements and villages, besides creating job opportunities, adding a new dimension to the human mobility in Lesotho.

Trump’s administration tariffs announced in April 2025 have introduced a new dimension to migration uncertainties in Lesotho. Being part of the African Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA), in 2024 it exported $237 million in goods to the US – mostly garments. Similar to the COVID period when many factories shut down in the capital Maseru, a newly imposed tariff regime could create a high level of unemployment, driving the Basotho to migrate to South Africa. 

Lesotho-South Africa migration key challenges

Based on the recent Lesotho Migration, Environment and Climate Change (MECC)[1] research we conducted, we found that: 

1. Besides the lack of economic opportunities, climate change and environmental degradation pose challenges that drive the citizens of Lesotho to consider migration to South Africa as an alternative livelihood strategy.

2. Bureaucratic processes to access travel documents are cumbersome, complicating illegal migration to South Africa. A returning migrant from South Africa noted that obtaining a passport in Lesotho was difficult, and could alert South African authorities to their overstaying.​ Many prefer illegal crossings, which increase migrants’ risks, vulnerabilities and uncertainties, including arrest, detention and deportation. 4,451 were deported during 2016-2020. Migrants are also concerned about xenophobic mobs.

3. The Lesotho Exemption Permit (LEP) regulates the Lesotho nationals in South Africa in working, studying and engaging in business. However, it doesn’t confer permanence and requires regular renewals, leaving the Basotho uncertain. 

4. Historically, migration was dominated by skilled and unskilled men working in the mines, in construction and on commercial farms. However, the closure of mining sites and the expansion of manufacturing and the middle class in South Africa led mainly to women working in domestic roles, resulting in the feminisation of migration to South Africa. 

5. Reintegration of returning migrants is challenging. For instance, South Africa’s dwelling mining sector and Covid lockdowns forced many Basotho migrants to return to their villages, leaving them destitute and without effective safety nets. 

Way forward 

Based on the action-oriented research findings, key policy actions are required:    

1. Given Lesotho’s rich natural resources, mainly its water, dubbed ‘white gold’, South Africa has invested millions of dollars in dam construction to access a fresh water supply. Though the mirrored level of interest isn’t expected, migration between the two states should also receive paramount attention. A call for the South African government to have a robust and supportive migration policy, including opening up and integrating them to the labour market, towards the Basotho people remain inevitable.

2. South Africa should view Lesotho as more than ‘a landlocked reservoir of easily exploitable labour’. Reviewing the LEP regime and adopting an Open-door immigration policy by South Africa can promote freedom of movement, and reduce illegal crossings, human trafficking, and crimes like illegal mining activities by Zama Zama. The South Africa – Lesotho Bi-National Commission (BNC) should harmonise human mobility and labour policies to reduce South Africa’s punitive measures. 

3. Expanding local opportunities in the villages, urban and semi-urban centres. Climate-smart agriculture contributes to a resilient agro-ecological system, ecosystem restoration and disaster resilience. Revitalising the manufacturing sector by attracting foreign investment, expanding green jobs and investing in entrepreneurial promotion would increase productivity and widen opportunities for young people. 

4. Lesotho is suffering from brain-drain, leading to an acute shortage of medical professionals. Bilateral labour agreements on skilled manpower transfer would benefit Lesotho. Furthermore, diaspora engagement in the national economy (including expertise and technological transfers) and the reintegration system for returning migrants from South Africa can smooth the migration process. 

5. The feminisation of migration brought about challenges and opportunities. A new gender-specific policy is needed to deeply understand and protect women and girls from abuse and exploitation by smugglers and employers within such a complex web of migration routes. 

6. Establishing the National Migration Data Centre can contribute to data-driven, informed, harmonised and robust migration policies in Lesotho, South Africa and SADC region.